Spotlight on Confucianism IV: Reflections and Recap

Often I end a series with a critique. However, I already have several loose threads and adding another to the tapestry would be too much. 

Instead I am going to briefly answer three questions from my current perspective:

1) Is Confucianism a religion?
2) What are the similarities between Confucianism and Humanism?
3) Who might benefit by contemplating the beliefs and traditions of Confucianism?

1) Is Confucianism a religion?

Though I have discussed this question, I have yet to take a firm stance. My answer is that Confucianism is a religion, but there are a few caveats.  

Confucian ideas used for purely political ends, such as in the Han dynasty, are not religious. But the practice of divination, the belief in Heaven as guide for morality, and even the Confucian analysis of self should all be considered religious. 

Confucianism fits most academic theories of religion. It is about community (Emile Durkheim), though it does merge the sacred and the secular. Self, family, and community are ultimate concerns (Paul Tillich). And, some Confucians even report experiencing Heaven (William James).

But, if you believe that religion is defined by a belief in a personal God or gods (and would not substitute an impersonal metaphysical principle), then you would likely disagree with me. Though if this is the case, perhaps you would disqualify Christian Science as well. 

2) Should we compare Confucianism or other Eastern traditions/ideas to Western Humanism?

American Humanist Association advertising campaign.

First what is humanism? Humanism has two meanings, one general and one specific. The general definition is 'a system of thought that attaches prime importance to human needs'. Confucianism is a subset of this type of humanism. 

The more specific meaning of humanism focuses on rationality, empiricism, and materialism (the belief that all existence is comprised of matter and energy). Confucianism is typically not humanism according to this definition.

Here's why:

In Confucianism, T'ien is the source of morality, the metaphysical principle, and the first instance of the metaphysical principle. T'ien and materialism are incompatible, because a typical humanist would likely not accept the metaphysical underpinnings of Confucian divination. 

(Thanks to Greg Epstein for gently chastising me into thinking about humanism more globally)

3) Who might benefit by contemplating the beliefs and traditions of Confucianism?

An illustration of the perceived difference between Cofucianism (left) and Daoism (right)

Previously, I wrote a harsh review of Alaine de Botton's Religion for Atheists. My chief critique was that he only picked aspects of religion that he liked without a theoretical perspective or even specific practical considerations. 

I also thought that it was problematic to take specific festivals and rituals out of their original context without due care. 

I hope to avoid my own critiques by being specific who I think aspects of Confucianism might help. I have Asperger's, an autism spectrum 'disorder'. 

From a purely personal perspective, I never felt like belief in God or attending church helped me with social belonging.

When I read about the Confucian method of first cultivating myself and then expanding outwards, this made sense to me. Sure, there is prayer and other ways of self-cultivation in Christianity, but this is usually focused on an individual's relationship with God. 

I had immense difficulty understanding human people and I felt everyone wanted me to have a relationship with a God-person, whose intentions are admittedly outside of everyone's grasp.

Without an overall plan for self improvement, I studied humans academically: first psychology, then philosophy, then history, and finally religion. Currently, I think religion best encapsulates humanity. (But this is an argument I will write later).

As I understand it, this strategy is not unlike the Neo-Confucian concept of ko wu (the investigation of things). By practicing ko wu, you develop an understanding of Principle. 

Also, Confucianism focuses on guiding individuals as individuals, as opposed to one approach fits all (terrible for those who are demonstrably different). For instance, Confucius gives advice to his students based on what that person needs to work on, as opposed to a generalized set of rules. 

There is focus on definite moral rules as well (i.e. respect elders, fulfill your roles well, and etc...). Though, an emphasis on specific rules would help, it would be difficult to implement this in an American context beyond the family. And perhaps a failure of Confucianism is that it creates a misguided holism of the religious, ethical, and political. 

However, it seems like a good model to follow for those who are demonstrably different, as they can be formally taught ethical and moral theories that they could potentially put into practice in their own lives. 

Bottom line: 

Overall I have so far enjoyed Confucianism. Though, for my blog I am moving on to other religions. I am looking forward to further investigating Confucianism, particularly the philosophy of Chu Hsi. 

Spotlight on Confucianism III: My I-Ching Divination

So far in this series I have looked at Confucianism from a theoretical and intellectual perspective. I have asked 'Is Confucianism a religion?' And, 'How should Westerners think about Eastern traditions such as Confucianism? 

But, we can't forget that Confucianism is also a lived tradition with rituals. 

There are ancestor worship ceremonies at Confucian temples. 

Rarely, there are traditional Confucian weddings. 

And there is Confucian (and Taoist) divination, the subject of this post.

In general, divination seeks knowledge of the future. However, the objective in Confucian divination focuses more on how to proceed with future endeavors and is used for moral self-cultivation. 

Thus, there has to be a relatively well-formed question for the diviner to perform the divination. 

"Will I be wealthy?" would not be a great question as the answer would only be a prediction. 

"How can I get a job more aligned with my interests?" is the question I posed in my divination performed by the Confucian philosopher Bin Song (to whom I am grateful for much of my instruction in Confucianism). 

(This divination was performed sometime ago and I am happy with my current position).

Divination is supported by Confucian metaphysics. Remember that Heaven (T'ien) is subtle, not overt. 

In this world view, Heaven is the metaphysical principle that orders nature. Heaven also gives us moral order. Thus, the subtle order of nature can aid self-cultivation through yarrow stalks (image below) or coins if you listen carefully. 

Confucian divination is a specific ritual, composed of several steps: reading, fasting, meditation, actual divination, interpretation, and verification.

My divination was performed using coins, instead of yarrow stalks. It is faster and more convenient in modern times. (Divination has always been performed with available materials and has been practiced by both commoners and the elite).

The first step of divination is being sincere. You can perform it yourself, have someone else guide you through it, or even do one online. 

This type of divination actually predates Confucius, though his commentaries on the I Ching (Book of Changes) are usually included in modern versions. 

Almost lost to time, the practice of divination was reconstructed by Chu Hsi (1130-1200 C.E.), the great synthesizer of Neo-Confucianism, based on his interpretation of the I Ching and other ancient texts. 

Like many ancient texts there are various interpretative strategies to understand the I Ching. It can be taken philosophically, cosmologically, metaphysically, or practically (in the case of divination). The I-Ching discusses meanings of hexagrams.

Hexagrams are composed of six broken or solid lines. Each line is decided by the toss of three coins. On a coin, tails represents yin and heads represents yang. However, the divination is based on rarity; thus 2 tails and 1 head would be yang, instead of yin. 

Broken lines symbolize yin, the passive, feminine, and covert. Solid lines represent yang, the active, masculine, and overt. These are complementary. 


However, if all three are yin or yang, then this is called a changed line and requires more attention than non-changed lines. Once the coins are tossed you make the line as indicated in the graphic below. Hexagrams are constructed from the bottom up. 

When you have the first three lines you have created a trigram. Each trigram has its own particular meaning derived from the individual yin or yang lines. 

The meaning of the final hexagram is primarily derived from the meanings of its two trigrams and the interpretation of the hexagram in the I Ching.

The I Ching gives the meaning, interpretation, and commentary of all 64 possible hexagram combinations. 

The hexagram that resulted from my divination was Meng (often translated as youthful folly). 

This hexagram evokes the imagery of water flowing down the mountain, thwarted by bumpy rocks at the beginning. But eventually, the water will flow down. 

According to the commentary in the I-Ching, this process is analogous to education. A person without education is the water which can not find its way, but after education the obstacle is removed. 

Each hexagram in the I Ching has a meaning or decision. One translation of the decision based on Meng is:

Childhood.

Prosperous and smooth.

It is not I who seek the ignorant.

The ignorant seeks me.

On the first divination, I give light.

Repeating again is contemptuous.

Being contemptuous, I give no more instruction.

Favorable to be steadfast and upright.

 (From: The Complete I Ching, translated by Taoist Master Alfred Huang). 

Based on the divination process, which included the question and background information, Bin gave me his result of the divination. I needed to uncloud myself by focusing on avoiding bad habits, such as: procrastination, distraction, and disreputable people. 

Also, I still need to find a mentor. (This hasn't happened just yet).

(Confucian divination is admittedly sometimes wrong and avoiding bad habits seemed like a problem I had, while avoiding distracting people did not). 

Bottom line:

I have been procrastinating less and I have a much better job than when I had the divination performed. I am following my interests more consistently (including this blog) and my consistent schedule allows me to do this better. 

Though, I feel like I fell into these improvements (with the help of good friends), and at least not overtly as a result of thinking about this divination. 

I am still unsure how to think about this particular divination or divination based on the I Ching in general. Did it sink in subtly? Perhaps, I can't rule that out.

It's impossible to say, but I can't, nor should, I dismiss it entirely. It's not going to predict the future, but having one performed may help you better think about it.   

Spotlight on Confucianism II: Review of Understanding Confucian Philosophy

To help me decide whether Confucianism is translatable into a Western context, I read Understanding Confucian Philosophy: Classical and Sung-Ming by Shu-hsien Liu.

Water, source of life
Common symbol for Confucianism

This book is an intellectual history of spiritual Confucianism, which takes jen (humaneness) and the unification of the ethical and political as its ultimate commitment. Spiritual Confucianism is not the same as political Confucianism or popular Confucianism. Though, both of these Confucianisms are intertwined with spiritual Confucianism.

Jen

140 Word Summary:

The Analects of Confucius made jen (humaneness) central; The Book of Mencius established the orthodoxy that human nature is good; The Great Learning begins with internal sageliness and works outward; and in The Doctrine of the Mean, T’ien (Heaven) is both transcendent and immanent. These four ancient texts, known as the Four Books, provide the core of Confucianism. Later, Neo-Confucians of the Sung and Ming periods (approximately 960-1644 A.D.) were impacted by the Yin-Yang School, Buddhism, and Neo-Taoism. 

In addition to traditional Confucian concepts, they were interested in problems concerning hsin (heart-mind) and hsing (nature). Also, they interpreted li (principle) and ch’i (material force) in more metaphysical ways. Chu Hsi (1130-1200 A.D.) was the great synthesizer, and Huang Tsung-hsi (1610-1695 A.D.) was the last advocate for the transcendent aspects of Confucianism until the 20th century.

Extended Summary and Critique:

In contrast to the idea of original sin in Western theology, Confucianism emphasizes the inherent goodness in humanity. For instance, in the Analects, Confucius expresses a deep faith in the possibility of human morality; and Mencius establishes the Confucian orthodoxy that human nature is originally good.

Mencius established the Four Beginnings; these beginnings are evidence of the inherent goodness of human nature. Briefly, the feeling of commiseration is the beginning of jen (humaneness), the feeling of deference and compliance is the beginning of li (propriety); the feeling of right and wrong is the beginning of wisdom; and the feeling of shame and dislike is the beginning of i (righteousness).

Li

If we have these Beginnings; then, why do humans act immorally? Because, artificial environmental factors divert us from our originally good nature. Just as it is possible to dam a river forcing it upstream; it is possible to alter human nature. People can lose their good natured hsin (heart-mind) and if they do, then they do not typically attempt to retrieve it. Practicing the Four Beginnings is the way to jen.

Politics are a direct extension of ethics for Mencius. Government should practice jen and people of jen should rule. A true ruler will act in ways that promote the original goodness in people.

People must have a secure livelihood to have a secure mind, and if people do not have a secure mind then they will result to various sorts of criminal behavior. After people are fed and have a secure mind, then they must be educated to fulfill their proper roles. The theme of focusing on one’s own development and extending it to society is also emphasized in The Great Learning. 

The last of the Four Books, The Doctrine of the Mean, is the most metaphysical. T’ien (Heaven) is depicted as both the metaphysical principle and the first manifestation of the metaphysical principle. Heaven and Earth are the two main forces that keep the creative process of the universe going, which is the source of being for the various things in the world. One who achieves ch’eng (sincerity, Truth, Reality) is truly following the Dao (Way).

Ch’eng has both an ethical and metaphysical (transcendent) component; there is little real distinction between ethics and metaphysics in Confucian thought. In fact, Liu suggests that in The Doctrine of the Mean ch’eng is another name for the all-encompassing metaphysical principle (T’ien). T’ien is subtle (literally the opposite of overt or obvious) and is the model for human ethics; one has to pay attention to the creative spark within to model themselves after T’ien. 

Confucianism took a much more authoritarian and political turn during the Han dynasty and as a result intellectual interest in Confucianism lessened. It wasn’t until approximately 960 A.D. during the Sung and Ming periods that Chinese scholars started to re-evaluate the Confucian Way, this movement is known as Neo-Confucianism. 

Liu, the author, explores a typical Neo-Confucian position on equilibrium and harmony through Chu Hsi, the great Neo-Confucian synthesizer. It was his intermediate position, rather than his final position that obtained Confucian orthodoxy.

The orthodox line created by Chu Hsi is that hsing (human nature) was the state before the feelings were aroused and the heart-mind (hsin) was the state after arousal. (Recall that Mencius’ Four Beginnings are feelings). Later, Chu Hsi found this to be a problem because if hsing is the state before feelings were aroused, then there are no feelings in human nature and no way to cultivate the seeds of morality; eliminating the possibility of self-discipline.

Hsin

Thus, he formulated his final mature view that hsin encompasses both the state before and the state after feelings arose. He developed a comprehensive metaphysics of li and ch’i to aid in his analysis of mind, nature, and feelings. This metaphysics was developed due to an existential concern; emulating the general Confucian ideal of starting with the self and working outwards.

Even though, Chu Hsi deviated from Confucius and Mencius to a notable degree, it was his version of Neo-Confucianism that became the main branch. Huang Tsung-hsi (1610-1695), refusing to give up on li as a transcendent quality, would be the last Neo-Confucian until the twentieth century.

Bottom Line:

Confucian philosophy starts with the individual and works outward; you can even see this in its intellectual history. Confucius did not address cosmology or metaphysics in much detail; but, later Chu Hsi developed a fine tuned metaphysical system.

In contrast, Western philosophy typically starts with metaphysics. Plato focused the Good, Aristotle the Prime Mover, Christian philosophers argued about the nature of God, and etc…. This is not an iron-clad rule, but a very strong trend.

The interpretive question is this; do we try to understand Confucianism on its own terms? Or do we acknowledge and embrace our predispositions in attempt to increase the value of both Eastern and Western philosophy, as Ames argued?

There are interpretative pitfalls for both strategies. In the first method, there is the risk of unintentionally bringing Western intellectual baggage to Confucianism. In the second method, the risk is obtaining only a superficial understanding by not delving deep enough into the terms and problems of a noble tradition.

Our important comparative work will be better if we try to take a tradition on its own terms, and our important interpretative work will benefit by comparing one tradition to another. We need practice both methods simultaneously. Understanding worldviews is difficult work and will never be fully completed. But we gain so much in the attempt!

Current Events III: Draw Muhammad Events

Je suis Charlie/Je ne suis pas Charlie

On May 3, 2015 two men opened fire on in the middle of a ‘Draw Muhammad’ contest taking place in Garland Texas. On May 29, another ‘Draw Muhammad’ contest was held directly outside the Islamic Community Center of Phoenix where these gunmen worshipped. The organizer, Jon Ritzheimer, encouraged people to bring guns to this event in order to defend free speech. This protest ended with police forming a line between Ritzheimer’s group and protestors.

Approximately seven months ago, Al-Qaeda’s Yemen branch claimed credit for an attack on the headquarters of Charlie Hebdo, a French satire magazine, which resulted in twelve deaths and several injuries. The reason? Charlie Hebdo featured drawings of the Prophet Muhammad, which many Muslims believe are blasphemous. Immediately after the attack, Charlie Hebdo asserted its freedom of speech and press by featuring another picture of Muhammad with the statement Tout est Pardonne (all is forgiven).

       

This turned out to be divisive. Hebdo supporters cried “Je suis Charlie,” while others responded “Je ne suis pas Charlie.” In a recent interview the editor-in-chief has announced that Charlie Hebdo will no longer draw pictures of Muhammed.

       

Michael Moynihan from Politico, Daniel Payne from the Federalist, and others would like this vacancy filled. Payne specifically asks: “Who will draw Muhammad?” Apparently, they have already forgotten about the Garland, TX and Phoenix, AZ events.   

        

People will be drawing Muhammad for the foreseeable future, but I have a different question: how does drawing Muhammad contribute to society? Free speech, you say? I am free to say “nana boo boo hele alhei bek,” but its gibberish. I am free to say “I hate Klingons” and that would actually offend a small segment of people; it doesn’t add anything substantial.

       

Neither does drawing Muhammad. Inspired by M.C. Escher, the winner of one ‘Draw Muhammad’ contest featured The Prophet saying “you can’t draw me” and a representation of the artist’s hands responding “that’s why I draw you.” Based on a google image search, many of the less vulgar submissions seem to be centered on this theme.

       

The meaning behind this art is simply: “I don’t care that I am deeply offending you. I am doing it anyways, because freedom.” It’s the equivalent of having an art contest to see who can draw the rudest picture of the deceased at their funeral despite the family’s wish to have no images shown. It is simply disrespectful.

       

To be clear, I do not condone the attacks on Charlie Hebdo or at Garland, Texas. These were heinous acts of violence and the journalists at Charlie Hebdo should not have died as a result of their art. Also legal action should never be taken against those who choose to draw Muhammad; just as the hateful Westboro Baptist Church pickets should remain legal as long as all relevant laws are followed. Nevertheless it is shameful that violence had such a large role in the cessation of Charlie Hebdo’s drawing of Muhammad, instead of decency.

I need freedom of speech and assembly to live my life as I please and to criticize what I want to criticize, even if some find my criticisms offensive: Je suis Charlie. But let’s get over the fetishization of free speech. Instead, we can use free speech to create and promote ideas that make a contribution to our understanding of the world: Je ne suis pas Charlie. 

Spotlight on Confucianism I: Review of Confucian Role Ethics

     ‘Confucius say’ is the beginning of many jokes. However, little else from Confucianism has made its way into Western culture. Thus, in this series, I will try to make understandable the Confucian project. I am grateful to my contact Bin Song at Boston University for his patience, recommendations, and conversations during this short series.

        One debate about Confucianism is whether or not it is a religion. I heard several Confucians and scholars of Confucianism address this issue. The general consensus among this group was that it was not. However, whether or not they are right everyone admits that there are at least religion-like themes at play. Roger T. Ames, author of Confucian Role Ethics: A Vocabulary, the book currently under review, talks a great deal about Confucian religiosity.  

140 Word Summary:

         

        Confucianism begins with an individual’s approach to life and continues with responsibilities towards family, friends, and community. Accurately translating Confucian concepts into Western contexts is difficult due to differing assumptions about reality. However, if translated carefully, something can be gained by everyone; though a full indigenous understanding is impossible. Instead of individual entities like soul, self, and God, the Confucian worldview is populated with relational roles like father, ruler, and teacher. There is no ‘One’ supporting the many. The ‘cosmos’ is many, varied, and in flux. Exemplarily and creatively fulfilling your roles, duties, and rituals: adds to the ‘cosmos’, is evidence that one is becoming fully human, and enhances individuality. China has a reputation for isolationism and inwardness. However, there are resources available to create a democracy based on Confucian role ethics.

Extended Critique and Analysis:

       

        In this review I will not attempt to assess whether or not Ames is right in his conception of Confucianism. I am not qualified to judge one of the leading scholars of Confucianism on Confucian interpretation. However, I believe the work of this book is too important to be left solely to the scholars of Confucianism. Thus, what I offer here is an understandable summary of Ames’ interpretation of Confucianism. If you are interested then you should read more to see if Confucianism really is as different from Western religions as Ames suggests. There will also be more in this series.

        Confucian Role Ethics is an attempt to translate Confucian worldviews and terms into a Western academic context. Done carefully, we can go further and translate Confucian ideas to a much wider audience, increasing cultural (if not religious) literacy among Westerners. I start with Ames’ work.

        First, hermeneutics: a rough synonym of hermeneutics is interpretation. However, the fuller meaning refers to how when we understand a text, tradition, or culture, we bring our own tradition and culture to our interpretation. We are embedded, almost from birth, in a sea of language; usually a particular language with particular emphases.

        Confucian Role Ethics starts with the following hermeneutical problem: how should one translate Confucianism into a Western context, when any attempt at trying to comprehensively relay Confucianism on its own terms is likely going to fail. Ames’ solution is to turn this problem into a benefit and attempt to start a conversation between a Confucian and Western context with both ‘appreciating’ each other. (Appreciating is used here both in the sense of valuing and making something more valuable).

       

        Given that we start with our own context, Ames reminds us of our implicit and inherited ontological system. Western ontology (theory of being) is primarily concerned with discrete entities, i.e. soul, God, character, self, and etc…. This includes the ontological idea of the ‘One’ behind the many, i.e. there is one Good in which all other goods participate. Ames argues that in the Confucian context there is just the Many; whereas, the Confucian ontological system is relational and multiple.

       

        In the Confucian context we understand ourselves primarily through others and through relations with those others. In addition, the cosmos is enriched when we fulfill our roles well and creatively. Thus, Confucian ontology is populated with relational terms, like father, ruler, student, teacher, and etc…. The ‘self’ is embedded into a social context through birth, as one grows older one has choices and alters this social context, which is always in flux mirroring and participating in the flux of the cosmos.

        Now that we have a base level understanding of the different ontological systems, we can start translating specific terms that are used throughout the book so that we can start, as best we can, to understand the Confucian project as a whole.

       

        Perhaps the most central ethical project of Confucianism is often translated: ‘the rectification of names.’ One must fulfill the duties associated with their roles. For instance, to be a good writer I must fulfill my duties as a writer and the main evidence of my writing abilities is to have exceptional and thoughtful readers. But clearly I am not just a writer; I have many roles and many people in my life. My various relations must be balanced, executed well, and rectified (fulfilled and practiced) not just with the title of the role, but also with my other roles. Concepts associated with the rectification of names are li and ren (sometimes spelled jen).

       

        Li is translated variously as ‘ritual,’ ‘rites,’ ‘customs,’ ‘etiquette,’ ‘propriety,’ ‘morals,’ ‘rules of proper behavior,’ ‘achieved propriety in ritualized roles and relations,’ and ‘reverence.’ Li carries all of these meanings, but with differing emphasis with each use. It implies serving the family and communal spirits ‘to bring about a thriving family and community.’ Confucian religiousness is focused on family feeling and concern for community.

        

                Desiring a life of li is essential for ren, often translated as humaneness. Ren is the most central concept/goal for Confucianism. But understanding ren requires an understanding of the ‘self’ in Confucianism.

        Remember the self is not discrete, but primarily social. I am my relations with the various people in my life. There cannot be a self without these relations, as I needed to be nourished and cared for as a child to be alive today; to say nothing of the relationships that I have developed.

       

        Thus, when Yan Hui, Confucius’ favorite student, says that ren is self-love, it is met with great approval from the master himself. This may seem selfish and arrogant in a Western context; however, in the Confucian context, self-love implies the love of all the relations that one: has created, has been born into, and has family feeling for.

       

        There are several other words that a ‘vocabulary’ of Confucian terms must address: ‘shu,’ putting oneself in the other’s place, ‘zhong,’ doing one’s utmost, ‘yi,’ optimal appropriateness, ‘xin,’ making good on one’s word, and ‘de,’ excelling morally. These key concepts, central to Confucian ethics, are necessary to be consummately human (ren).

        Now that we have a basic understanding of the Confucian project is easier to see how these concepts fit into the Confucian model. In Confucianism, there are no moral holidays, though obviously we are human and occasionally we do fail. The ideal is to be steadfast and to participate in the ethical life out of love of li (propriety).

Bottom line:

       

        If religiosity can be applied to the Confucian tradition it is a religiosity of practical family and community matters. It merges the sacred and the profane. There has been no priestly class in China, nor would Confucians ever renounce the world like Christian and Buddhist monks and Hindu sadhus do. It’s just not possible.

        There are rites, sacrifices, and a cosmology all centered on family, communal spirits, and ontology (theory of being). At Confucius’ burial site, there is even a well-attended temple in his honor. In my opinion, Confucianism is a religion and it would count as a religion in many, but perhaps not all, theories of religion.

       

        My favorite theorist, Emile Durkheim, argues that religion is about community that shares beliefs and rituals. Using this conception it is clearly a religion. Max Weber famously wrote on Confucianism and Daoism arguing that these religions made it difficult or impossible for capitalism to develop in China.

       

        Paul Tillich argues that religion is about ultimate concern; the ultimate concern in Confucianism is family and then community. For those like Freud and C.S. Lewis, who believe that religion has to have a central belief component, Confucianism may be a bit ritualistic; however, there is likely enough shared belief for it to count.

        William James would likely be a popular dissenting opinion. He argues that religion is about direct individual experiences. For James, the paradigm of a religious individual is the religious mystic. Given that this type of mystic is difficult to reconcile with Confucian community and family feeling, it is possible that Confucianism wouldn’t count as a religion under his theory.

        We should also remind ourselves that ‘religion’ is a Western term that would need to be translated into their context and back into ours to see if it fits the category of religion. This is required given the limits on translation.